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By reducing the mass of rocket stages, ESA hopes to increase payload-to-orbit performance. That is the objective of an ESA programme called PHOEBUS (Prototype of a Highly OptimisEd Black Upper Stage), which aims to produce upper stage tanks and structures in carbon fibre that are capable of handling cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen. Seen here is a prototype 2m-scale tank in production at MT Aerospace, which will ultimately deliver full-scale 3.5m tanks to prime contractor ArianeGroup. These so-called “black stages” – named after the distinctive colour of carbon fibre structures – could become a feature of future European rockets. The weight reduction offered by a Phoebus stage could increase payload performance by up to 2 tonnes – with the added benefit of lower production costs compared to traditional metal structures.